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[Table of Contents]
by DR. FRANCIS X. KANE
NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
FXK-6188
TEXT FROM DR. KANE
1 June, 1988
Jerry, after struggling with the chapter, I finally identified its flaw. Steve
assumed that a nuclear strategy meant exploiting all the potential
applications, and that the Soviets constrained us by their
deployment/propaganda efforts.
The fact is that we have and have had a strategy for nuclear technology. It
has been very narrow;
but very, very successful. The objective has been to continuously improve our
weapons in spite of all constraints. The weapon technology goes hand in hand
with the inertial guidance technology. As accuracy has gotten better and
better, yield has gone down, and weapon effects have gone up. Furthermore, our
weapons are longer-lived, have become more reliable, and have been very
economical in the use of critical nuclear material.
Furthermore, as we have decreased yield without giving up military (and even
improving)
military effectiveness [sic] we have reduced the amount of critical material
in each weapon.
Thus, we are able to "mine" obsolete weapons for their nuclear material and
re-use it for newer, more efficient designs.
That strategy can only be called an unqualified success.
NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
In the fifty years since Nils Bohr announced the splitting of the atom nuclear
technology has grown and matured -- and become the most controversial
technology in history. As we approach the end of the century, the issue is
whether or not nuclear technology will continue to exist. In the immediate
post-war period several landmark studies identified applications to an array
of military and civil applications
(See Chart 17)
. Most of them were explored. But at the same time there was a raging
discussion of ways to limit those applications or to "put the nuclear genie"
back in the bottle. That situation still prevails at the start of the last
decade of this century -- new applications are being invented; new attempts
are being made to prevent them.
The list of military applications explored covers nearly the entire range of
propulsion and
weapon systems.
Nuclear bombs grew from the 20 kiloton weapon of 1945 to the 60 megaton bomb
exploded by the Soviets in 1961 and a962, when they abrogated the "gentlemen's
agreement" not to test nuclear weapons in the Earth's atmosphere. As nuclear
file NUKES Page _
technology matured the explosive power in bombs declined from the
multi-megaton range to that of the low kiloton. Such bombs are carried by
fighter and bomber aircraft, ballistic missiles (both
ICBM and SLBM), and cruise missiles.
Nuclear artillery rounds were developed, deployed and modernized for
battlefield operation, particularly as part of the U.S. deterrent to Soviet
attack on NATO.
Nuclear air defense weapons were deployed in Europe and the U.S. Nuclear
weapons for ballistic missile defense and ASATs were deployed. Nuclear depth
charges were designed (Casaba
Hawlyn[?]) and deployed.
In propulsion technology, nuclear powered engines were developed for
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long-range bombers (the
Camel[? Comet?])' nuclear powered cruise missile; nuclear reactors for ships,
both surface and submarine; nuclear propulsion for spacecraft (SNAP) was used;
and nuclear power for space stations and lunar bases were designed. A design
to propel large satellites by a chain of nuclear explosions (Orion) was
developed but never implemented. The Soviets for their part have developed and
orbited many nuclear reactors.
On the commercial side, nuclear power for the generation of electricity became
the mainstay of
France and other countries. Nuclear explosions for peaceful purposes such as
building canals were actively considered for a decade and dropped.
All these applications were constrained by fear; fear of accident, pollution
and unknown effects, and the overriding dread that the use of even one nuclear
weapon would lead to the end of mankind. To allay fears, emphasis was placed
on safeguards and constraints. Nuclear weapons on aircraft, for example, were
controlled by Permissive Action Links (PAL) so that they could be used only on
authority by[?] responsibility civilians. Most of the applications for
propulsion were dropped because of the impossibility of safe military
operations. The nuclear-powered aircraft was to have been flown in remote
areas of Utah and a special hangar was built for it even though the program
never survived the design stage. Of those propulsion applications only the
nuclear reactor to power submarines survived and matured.
In like manner, nuclear plowshares never became a real program. Nuclear power
for generation of electricity survived, albeit controversy surrounded
individual plants and caused delays in construction, cancellation of
programs[?], and even abandonment of plants.
Very much related was the issue of disposing of nuclear waste materials. The
search for suitable sites dragged on for years, hindered by concerns for
pollution of the water supply and other health hazards.
Nevertheless, invention continues. New ways to focus energy produced by
nuclear explosions were developed. One application was postulated for the
X-Ray as a source of power to destroy enemy ballistic missiles. Tailored
weapon effects for discriminant[?] employment were
developed for the "Safeguard" bird[?] program[?] and battlefield weapons, and
the most controversial of the[?] inventions was the "neutron bomb" which could
kill enemy forces by enhanced radiation and not produce damage to material.
In order to try to curtail the application of nuclear technology to weapons,
extensive, long-term efforts were devoted to international negotiations,
treaties, and agreements. Very much related were efforts to prevent the use of
nuclear materials developed for and by commercial reactors for weapons. The
International Atomic Energy Agency was established by treaty and located in
Vienna, Austria. Technology for inspections and safeguards were developed for
the IAEA. Non-
proliferation programs were instituted by the U.S., U.K., and U.S.S.R. but
with limited effects.
France pursued its own path for commercial power and military weapons,
developing bombs for aircraft, strategic ballistic missiles and SLBMs. China
followed much the same path but developed also its own ICBMs. India exploded
its own nuclear bomb to signal its arrival as a major power. In order to
prevent Iraq from developing the "Islamic Bomb" financed by Libya, Israel
conducted an air strike on Iraq's nuclear reactor and destroyed it. However,
Israel was reported to have its own nuclear bombs. And Argentina, Brazil, and
Pakistan were assessed to be
"on the verge" of developing nuclear weapons. In sum, non-proliferation
efforts were never successful when nations decided that it was in their
interests to have nuclear weapons, and they acquired the necessary technology
to develop them.
The consequence for the U.S. military planner in the 1990's[?] was that Third
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World countries could use nuclear weapons in wars in their region. For
example, the U.S. in the 1980's pressured
Pakistan not [to?] develop its own weapon because of the fear of nuclear war
between nuclear armed India and Pakistan. (We should note that the Pakistani
have another motivation, namely, to defend themselves from a Soviet invasion
through Afghanistan.)
But the major focus on nuclear technology has been on strategic relations
between the U.S. and
U.S.S.R. The arms control theory is that if tests are banned, weapon
development will stop; the arsenals were[?] atrophy; the user will be
uncertain as to the health of his nuclear weapons; and consequently they will
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